Back again for Week 3 lesson reflection! In this class, we have covered 4 things (a lot of theories) that we can consider to integrate into our teaching.
1. Instructional Models
We learned about technology integration strategies that are derived from learning theories. There are 6 models in total; cognitive information processing (CIP) theory, schema theory, cognitive load theory, situated learning theory, Gagne's theory of instruction and constructivism theory.
Let's start with the first instructional model, the CIP theory, or simply known as 'information processing'. It is applied to various theoretical perspectives dealing with sequence and execution of cognitive events. Schunk (1996) stated that learners are viewed as active seekers and processer of information. He also explained that information processing theories focus on how people:
- attend to environmental events,
- encode information to be learned and relate it to knowledge in memory,
- store new knowledge in memory, and
- retrieve it as needed.
CIP theory focuses on what happens in between input and output; during information processing. The memory model, as seen in Figure 1 below, is the centre of the CIP theory.
Figure 1: The Memory Model
There are three basic components, or memory stages, in the model;
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
Let's look into the basic components a bit further. Sensory memory holds information associated with the senses (e.g., vision, hearing) just long enough (seconds) for the information to be processed further. Short-term memory functions as a temporary working memory, whereby further processing is carried out to make information ready for long-term storage or for a response. Working memory holds information for a limited amount of time and holds a limited amount of information. Long-term memory represents our permanent storehouse of information, capable of retaining an unlimited amount and variety of information.
Also, not to forget, the processes that keep the information 'alive' or to help transfer it from one stage to another;
- attention
- rehearsal
- chunking
- encoding
- retrieval
Attention, or selective attention, refers to learners' ability to select and process certain information while ignoring other information. These selections are influenced by the task difficulty, the ability to control attention, the similarity between competing tasks or sources of information, and what the information means to the individual.
Rehearsal is the repetition of information in order to maintain it in the Short-Term Memory for a period of time. However, this process alone is not enough to retain the information, thus encoding is needed.
Encoding is the process of relating incoming information to concepts already in memory so that the new material is more memorable. There are variety of ways that can be used, like mnemonics, imagery, concept trees, etc. These two processes (rehearsal and encoding) occur in Short-Term Memory to prevent loss of information and ensure the information is transferred to Long-Term Memory.
Another process that occur in Short-Term Memory is chunking, which is creating larger bits of information to increase working memory capacity. STM has limited capacity: Seven bits of information (7 ± 2) have been shown to constitute the memory span for a great variety of materials. However, each bit of information can vary tremendously in size, thus the chunking process is needed. Accordingly, learning tasks should be organized so that they can be easily chunked by the learner.
Retrieval is the process of bringing to mind previously learned information from the Long-Term Memory, to either (a) understand some new input or (b) make a response. Making a response may involve either recall or recognition.
By understanding the CIP theory, I realize that despite humans' ability to store unlimited amount of information, it takes a lot of processes to ensure that all the information needed to reach the end output, and it even depends on the ability of an individual to pay attention to the selection of the information and the ability to repeat and relate the info to an existing memory. My students have different information processing rates and I need to be able to find ways to cater to all so that none of them are left behind.
The second instructional model is the Frederic Bartlett's Schema Theory. This theory describes the way knowledge is acquired, processed and cerebrally organized. There are 4 key elements of a Schema:
- An individual can memorize and use a schema without even realizing of doing so.
- Once a schema is developed, it tends to be stable over a long period of time.
- Human mind uses schemata to organize, retrieve, and encode chunks of important information.
- Schemata are accumulated over time and through different experiences.
Schema Theory stresses on the importance of generic knowledge that will help the formation of mental representations. in the educational setting, a teacher helps students to build new schemata and establish new connections between them, which will improve their memory. A note to remember, prior knowledge and existing information helps with the connections as well.
This theory can be applied in various areas, such as reading comprehension in a language class. It is often used to assist the learning of a second language, since it usually requires reading many texts in the target language. If we fail to create a sufficient number of schemata when reading a text, then reading comprehension and consequently mastering another language will become difficult.
The third instructional model is the Cognitive Load Theory by John Sweller. This is a theory that focuses on the load on the working memory during instruction. The learning process requires working memory to be actively engaged in the comprehension of instructional material to encode learned information into Long-Term Memory. Since working memory has a limited capacity, instructional methods should avoid overloading it with additional activities that don't directly contribute to learning.
Some ways that instructors can do in applying this theory into teaching are by reducing redundancy and repetitive information whenever possible so that the working memory has less load to process. Instructors can also use auditory and visual information to increase working memory capacity under conditions where both information sources are essential and non-redundant. Goal-free problems can also be used instead of problems that use problem solving methods to reduce the working memory load.
The fourth instructional model is the Situated Learning Theory by Jean Lave. As stated in the name, learning occurs within activity, context, and culture and that it is often unintentional. Lave argued that students learn better in collaborative group settings and when the activities are based on real-life experiences.
This theory stresses on the importance of authenticity; learning involves a setting that creates an authentic real-life context. Students should be given an opportunity to explore and investigate from a variety of sources. Also, students learn to collaborate with each other as the activities designed are group-based, which allows for difference in opinions and viewpoints. Opportunities for students to interact with experts in the subject matter is another important aspect of building their community of practice.
There are many tools within the ICT to be used to accommodate situated learning, like Google Classroom. This tool allows the instructor to create lessons that can be student led. There is the ability to insert activities and links to outside sources for discovery. Instructors can facilitate the learning and students can collaborate and work on activities through add-ins such as Google Slides and Google Docs.
The fifth instructional model is Robert Gagne's Theory of Instruction. This instructional design is based on the information processing model of the mental events that occur when adults are presented with various stimuli and focuses on the learning outcomes and how to arrange specific instructional events to achieve those outcomes. According to Gagne, there are two conditions of learning; internal conditions which deal with what the learner knows prior to the instruction, and external conditions which deal with the stimuli that are presented to the learner, e.g. instructions provided by the teacher.
These are Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction and Learning:
- Gaining attention
- Informing the learner of the objective
- Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
- Presenting the stimulus material
- Providing learning guidance
- Eliciting the performance
- Providing feedback
- Assessing the performance
- Enhancing retention and transfer
The last instructional model is the Constructivism Theory. This theory states that people actively construct their own knowledge and that the reality is based on our experience as learners. Therefore, everyone's individual experiences make their learning unique to them. Students' background and previous knowledge impacts how they are able to learn.
Constructivist classrooms rely on four key areas to be successful:
- Shared knowledge between teachers and students.
- Shared authority between teachers and students.
- Teachers act as a guide or facilitator.
- Learning groups consist of small numbers of students.
In constructivist classrooms, the teacher has a role to create a collaborative environment where students are actively involved in their own learning. Teachers are more facilitators of learning than actual instructors. Teachers must work to understand the preexisting conceptions and understanding of students, then work to incorporate knowledge within those areas. Teachers will also need to adjust their teaching to match the learner’s level of understanding.
2. Bloom's Digital Taxonomy
Bloom's Digital Taxonomy is about using technology and digital tools to facilitate learning. It is a framework that provides a hierarchy that etches out the possible progression of that thinking. If we can remember, we can begin to understand. Understanding allows us to apply what we know, which enables us to make judgments on the utility of that knowledge, and even our own mastery of it.
Figure 2: Bloom's Digital Taxonomy
3. The 4 C's
As teachers, we are required to equip our students with skills that are intended to help them keep up with today's modern market. These skills are often called the 21st century skills as they are essential for students to succeed in their careers during the Information Age. There are 12 skills in total, but the most important ones are what we call the 4 C's; critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and communication.
Critical thinking is the practice of solving problems, among other qualities.
In addition to working through problems, solving puzzles, and similar activities, critical thinking also includes an element of skepticism. Critical thinking empowers students to discover the truth in assertions, especially when it comes to separating fact from opinion. With critical thinking, students don’t just learn a set of facts or figures. Instead, they learn how to discover the facts and figures for themselves. They ask questions. They become engaged in the world around them. They help others think critically, too. That might be the most important part of critical thinking. Once one student has it mastered, it quickly spreads to their peers.
Creativity is the practice of thinking outside the box.
Students can learn how to be creative by solving problems, creating systems, or just trying something they haven’t tried before. That doesn’t mean every student will become an artist or a writer. Instead, it means they’ll be able to look at a problem from multiple perspectives - including those that others may not see. Creativity allows students to embrace their inner strengths from big-picture planning to meticulous organization. As a student learns about their creativity, they also learn how to express it in healthy and productive ways.
Collaboration is the practice of working together to achieve a common goal.
Collaboration is important because whether students realize it or not, they’ll probably work with other people for the rest of their lives. Virtually every job requires someone to work with another person at some point, even if it’s for something as simple as what to get for lunch. Practicing collaboration and teamwork helps students understand how to address a problem, pitch solutions, and decide the best course of action. It’s also helpful for them to learn that other people don’t always have the same ideas that they do.
Communication is the practice of conveying ideas quickly and clearly.
In the age of text-based communications — SMS, emails, social media, etc. — it’s never been more important for students to learn how to convey their thoughts in a way that others can understand them. That’s because text-based communications lack tone, which is critical to understanding the context of someone’s words. Still, even in situations where vocal tone is available, students need to learn how to communicate effectively. That includes minimizing tangents, speaking directly to an idea, and checking other participants to make sure they’re engaged. Reading an audience — even if it’s just two other people in a group discussion — lets students determine whether they should keep expanding on an idea or wrap up their point.
4. Multiple Intelligences
In expanding our efforts to prepare our students for their future, we must consider the fact that they are different from each other. Not everyone is capable to speak in front of the class, not everyone is very good in project-based activities etc. Howard Gardner proposed a theory of Multiple Intelligences in 1983, whereby he suggested that all people have different kinds of 'intelligences', hence explaining the full range of abilities and talents that people possess. For example, people who possess verbal intelligence are typically good at writing stories and give speeches. Here is the list of 9 multiple intelligences;
Figure 3: Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
References
Heck, J. (2011, September 4). Cognitive Information Processing Theory—expertlearners.com. Expert Learners. Retrieved December 28, 2021, from http://www.expertlearners.com/cip_theory.php
Pappas, C. (2021, May 12). Instructional Design Models and Theories: Schema Theory. ELearning Industry. Retrieved December 28, 2021, from https://elearningindustry.com/schema-theory
Mind Tools. (n.d.). Cognitive Load Theory: Making Learning More Effective. Retrieved December 28, 2021, from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/cognitive-load-theory.htm
Educ5104G, P. I. (2020, April 10). Situated Learning Theory – E-Learning Essentials 2020. Pressbooks. Retrieved December 28, 2021, from https://elearning2020.pressbooks.com/chapter/situated-learning-theory/
Khadjooi, K., Rostami, K., & Ishaq, S. (2011). How to use Gagne’s model of instructional design in teaching psychomotor skills. NCBI. Retrieved December 28, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017416/
Western Governors University. (2020, October 21). What Is Constructivism? Retrieved December 29, 2021, from https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-constructivism2005.html#close
TeachThought. (2021, November 18). Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy Verbs For 21st Century Students. Retrieved December 29, 2021, from https://www.teachthought.com/critical-thinking/blooms-digital-taxonomy-verbs/
Stauffer, B. (2020, May 7). What Are the 4 C’s of 21st Century Skills? Applied-Educational-Systems. Retrieved December 29, 2021, from https://www.aeseducation.com/blog/four-cs-21st-century-skills
Vital, M. (2017, August 9). 9 Types Of Intelligence - Infographic. Adioma. Retrieved December 29, 2021, from https://blog.adioma.com/9-types-of-intelligence-infographic/
Cherry, K. (2021, July 28). Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Verywell Mind. Retrieved December 29, 2021, from https://www.verywellmind.com/gardners-theory-of-multiple-intelligences-2795161
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